Adult elk usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating period known as the rut, mature bulls compete for the attenti*** of the cows and will try to defend females in their harem. Ritualized mating behaviors include posturing, antler wrestling (sparring), and bugling, a loud series of vocalizati*** which establishes dominance over other males and attracts females. Bulls also dig holes in the ground, in which they urinate and roll their body. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct **ell which attracts cows.

Mating occurs from late September to early November. Males battle for access to females. Two males will lock each other's antlers together and try to push each other away. The most dominant males can collect as many as 15-20 females to mate with. A male will stop eating during this time and lose much of its body reserves.

Reproduction

Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. Females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring at a time. The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kilograms (33 and 35 lb). Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer.

Reindeer are seasonal breeders. The breeding season, or rut, normally begins in early September, lasting 3 to 4 weeks. The gestation period is about 7 months (210 – 220 days). Calves may be born the following May or June. After 45 days, the calves are able to graze and forage but continue suckling until the following autumn and become independent from their mothers.

Migration

As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regi***, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure also impacts migration and movements.

Some populati*** of the North American caribou migrate the furthest of any terrestrial mammal, traveling up to 5,000 km (3,100 mi) a year, and covering 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi). Normally traveling about 19–55 km (12–34 mi) a day while migrating, the caribou can run at speeds of 60–80 km/h (37–50 mph).

Commercial uses

Elk are held in captivity, or farmed, for hunting, meat production and velvet collection. Elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale. Antler velvet it is used in East Asian medicine. Elk hides have been used for thousands of years for tepee covering, blankets, clothing and footwear. Modern uses are more decorative, but elk skin shoes, gloves and belts are not uncommon.

Wild reindeer hunting and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer (for meat, hides, antlers, milk and transportation) are important to several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.

Cultural

Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples. Pictograms and petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago. The elk played a spiritual role in the Lakota society.

The reindeer are well known due to the myth in which Santa Claus's sleigh is pulled by flying reindeer.